Criminal law

Criminal law, also known as penal law, pertains to crimes and punishment. It thus regulates the definition of and penalties for offences found to have a sufficiently deleterious social impact but, in itself, makes no moral judgment on an offender nor imposes restrictions on society that physically prevents people from committing a crime in the first place. Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of criminal procedure. The paradigm case of a crime lies in the proof, beyond reasonable doubt, that a person is guilty of two things. First, the accused must commit an act which is deemed by society to be criminal, or actus reus (guilty act). Second, the accused must have the requisite malicious intent to do a criminal act, or mens rea (guilty mind). However for so called "strict liability" crimes, an actus reus is enough. Criminal systems of the civil law tradition distinguish between intention in the broad sense (dolus directus and dolus eventualis), and negligence. Negligence does not carry criminal responsibility unless a particular crime provides for its punishment.

A depiction of a 1600s criminal trial, for witchcraft in Salem

Examples of crimes include murder, assault, fraud and theft. In exceptional circumstances defences can apply to specific acts, such as killing in self defence, or pleading insanity. Another example is in the 19th century English case of R v Dudley and Stephens, which tested a defence of "necessity". The Mignonette, sailing from Southampton to Sydney, sank. Three crew members and Richard Parker, a 17 year old cabin boy, were stranded on a raft. They were starving and the cabin boy was close to death. Driven to extreme hunger, the crew killed and ate the cabin boy. The crew survived and were rescued, but put on trial for murder. They argued it was necessary to kill the cabin boy to preserve their own lives. Lord Coleridge, expressing immense disapproval, ruled, "to preserve one's life is generally speaking a duty, but it may be the plainest and the highest duty to sacrifice it." The men were sentenced to hang, but public opinion was overwhelmingly supportive of the crew's right to preserve their own lives. In the end, the Crown commuted their sentences to six months in jail.

Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as well. The state, usually with the help of police, takes the lead in prosecution, which is why in common law countries cases are cited as "The People v ..." or "R (for Rex or Regina) v ..." Also, lay juries are often used to determine the guilt of defendants on points of fact: juries cannot change legal rules. Some developed countries still condone capital punishment for criminal activity, but the normal punishment for a crime will be imprisonment, fines, state supervision (such as probation), or community service. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, especially with respect to sentencing, legal research, legislation, and rehabilitation. On the international field, 111 countries are members of the International Criminal Court, which was established to try people for crimes against humanity.

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Constitutional and administrative law

 Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single codified constitution, with a Bill of Rights. A few, like the United Kingdom, have an unwritten constitution, or no such document at all. A "constitution" is simply those laws which constitute the body politic, from statute, case law and convention. A case named Entick v Carrington illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. Mr Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington. When Mr Entick complained in court, Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax, was valid authority. However, there was no written statutory provision or court authority. The leading judge, Lord Camden, stated that,

    The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole ... If no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment.
The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by John Locke, holds that the individual can do anything but that which is forbidden by law, and the state may do nothing but that which is authorised by law.Administrative law is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account. People can apply for judicial review of actions or decisions by local councils, public services or government ministries, to ensure that they comply with the law. The first specialist administrative court was the Conseil d'État set up in 1799, as Napoleon assumed power in France.

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International law

International law can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations.
    * Public international law concerns relationships between sovereign nations. The sources for public international law development are custom, practice and treaties between sovereign nations, such as the Geneva Conventions. Public international law can be formed by international organisations, such as the United Nations (which was established after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent the Second World War), the International Labour Organisation, the World Trade Organisation, or the International Monetary Fund. Public international law has a special status as law because there is no international police force, and courts (e.g. the International Court of Justice as the primary UN judicial organ) lack the capacity to penalise disobedience. However, a few bodies, such as the WTO, have effective systems of binding arbitration and dispute resolution backed up by trade sanctions.
    * Conflict of laws (or "private international law" in civil law countries) concerns which jurisdiction a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction's law should be applied. Today, businesses are increasingly capable of shifting capital and labour supply chains across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses, making the question of which country has jurisdiction even more pressing. Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the New York Convention 1958.
    * European Union law is the first and, so far, only example of a supranational legal framework. Given the trend of increasing global economic integration, many regional agreements—especially the Union of South American Nations—are on track to follow the same model. In the EU, sovereign nations have gathered their authority in a system of courts and political institutions. These institutions are allowed the ability to enforce legal norms both against or for member states and citizens in a manner which is not possible through public international law. As the European Court of Justice said in the 1960s, European Union law constitutes "a new legal order of international law" for the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states.

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Law

Law is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a primary social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets. Property law defines rights and obligations related to the transfer and title of personal (often referred to as chattel) and real property. Trust law applies to assets held for investment and financial security, while tort law allows claims for compensation if a person's rights or property are harmed. If the harm is criminalised in a statute, criminal law offers means by which the state can prosecute the perpetrator. Constitutional law provides a framework for the creation of law, the protection of human rights and the election of political representatives. Administrative law is used to review the decisions of government agencies, while international law governs affairs between Sovereign States in activities ranging from trade to environmental regulation or military action. Intellectual property law protects trademarks and provides compensation to inventors and writers through patents and copyrights. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, "The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual."

Legal systems elaborate rights and responsibilities in a variety of ways. A general distinction can be made between civil law jurisdictions, which codify their laws, and common law systems, where judge made law is not consolidated. In some countries, religion informs the law. Law provides a rich source of scholarly inquiry, into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis or sociology. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness and justice. "In its majestic equality", said the author Anatole France in 1894, "the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets and steal loaves of bread." In a typical democracy, the central institutions for interpreting and creating law are the three main branches of government, namely an impartial judiciary, a democratic legislature, and an accountable executive. To implement and enforce the law and provide services to the public, a government's bureaucracy, the military and police are vital. While all these organs of the state are creatures created and bound by law, an independent legal profession and a vibrant civil society inform and support their progress.



All legal systems deal with the same basic issues, but each country categorises, and identifies its legal subjects in different ways. A common distinction is that between "public law" (a term related closely to the state, and including constitutional, administrative and criminal law), and "private law" (which covers contract, tort and property). In civil law systems, contract and tort fall under a general law of obligations, while trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or international conventions. International, constitutional and administrative law, criminal law, contract, tort, property law and trusts are regarded as the "traditional core subjects", although there are many further disciplines which may be of greater practical importance.

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What exercise can do for you

1. Naturally increases metabolism
According to the National Centre for Health Statistics, nicotine artificially raises your metabolic rate (the amount of calories you burn within a 24-hour period) by 20%. So when you quit, your metabolism returns to what it really should be.

Getting firmer, stronger muscles by doing regular physical activity like cycling and walking is a much healthier way of increasing your metabolic rate.

2. Controls weight gain
One of the scariest things about quitting smoking is the fear of gaining weight. A slower metabolism after quitting, combined with an improvement in taste and smell, a tendency to substitute food for cigarettes and emotional eating to relieve the stress of quitting can all result in weight gain of anywhere between 5-10lbs for the average smoker.

The combination of eating more calories while burning less means that regular physical activity is crucial. Aerobic exercise like walking, cycling, swimming or dancing for 30 minutes a day at a low-intensity will burn anything between 100-300 calories depending on the intensity and duration of your exercise.

Smokers who philosophize that smoking keeps them slim may also need to consider that nicotine causes body fat to be distributed to the upper body and abdominal area or in an “apple” shape – which is linked with a higher risk of heart disease, diabetes and early death.

3. Suppresses appetite
Stub out cigarettes and you can guarantee human nature will have you automatically reaching for the biscuit tin instead. Just like your regular rugby match, kicking a habit is always a game of substitution. But exercise is a natural way to temporarily suppress appetite because it regulates sugar levels in your blood. This in turn reduces the cravings for sweets and junk foods which we might bring onto the pitch to replace cigarettes.

4. Offers relief from nicotine cravings
Take a 10-minute brisk walk every time the nicotine cravings come calling, and fitness levels will soon be soaring. Physical activity can help take the ‘edge’ off nicotine cravings by bringing temporary relief until they pass.

Exercise improves blood circulation, so just a ten-minute walk can produce chemical endorphins in the brain which create a sense of well-being – the same ‘buzz’ smokers get from filling their lungs with smoke.

Regular physical activity is also a cheaper and more maintainable way of curbing the cravings for those who don’t want to use nicotine replacement therapy.

5. Curbs boredom
Boredom is one of the biggest barriers to quitting smoking. You can predict the routine now – arrive home after a hard day; slump into the sofa; stick the telly on and already your mind is wandering towards the ash tray as you gradually lose the fight to keep your hands occupied.

A cycle through the park or to the shops where there are things to look at, an exercise class where there are people to meet, or just a mind-challenging mountain-stroll at the weekend will help keep your mind away from the cigarettes. Don’t let boredom beat you down. Physical activity and sport can be a hobby, offering a fresh focus to get your teeth stuck into – without wasting your time whiling the hours away in frustration.

6. Relieves anxiety and stress
If you have ever tried to quit or know someone who is in the process, you’ll know that grouchiness, anxiety and depression are lurking nearby like an unwanted guest. Exercise is a proven mood lifter and anxiety reliever so you can banish any late-night desires to creep out the back door and light-up after a tough day.

Mood swings are a common temporary side effect of kicking any habit, but they can be used to fuel your physical goals. Vent your frustration at kick-boxing, whack out your woes with a tennis ball, or release tension with a gentle session of yoga or pilates.

7. Fuels a revitalising sleep
People who exercise regularly have fewer episodes of sleeplessness – a common side-effect of quitting. The temptation to light up is probably at its strongest after a heavy day when we are tired, so a more sufficient sleep may help stop the hands from reaching for the cigarettes simply because the body needs a boost.

Moderate exercise lasting 20-30 minutes five times a week promotes a more revitalising sleep because it is a physical stressor to the body. The brain compensates for physical stress by increasing deep sleep and so we sleep more soundly.

8. Promotes a buzzing social life
Lots of smokers argue that their social life will be affected if they quit. Getting involved in sport and physical activity is one of the most enjoyable ways to socialise – whether going for walks with the family, taking the kids for a kick-about or giving Grandma some company to the shops. Join a club, try out a gym class – talk to the regulars at your local swimming pool. The friends you make through sport and physical activity might just be your friends for life.

More importantly, swapping bad breath, sallow skin and yellow teeth for a healthier body image is crucial to fostering confidence and a positive mental attitude. Physical activity burns fat and boosts circulation, bringing more oxygen and nutrients to the skin so that it is firmer and better nourished – good news since smoking can leave the skin up to 40% thinner. People who are physically fit not only look good, but feel good too.

9. Cuts huffing and puffing
Physical activity strengthens your heart and lungs while improving circulation so there is to be no more humiliating huffing and puffing as you climb the stairs behind your colleagues.

Lots of people mistakenly think exercise will make them tired, but – at the appropriate intensity and duration for your current fitness level – it will actually invigorate you and make you more energetic.

10. Slows lung decline
Studies suggest that smokers who exercise are at a 35% lower risk of developing lung cancer than those who don’t exercise. But, not surprisingly, smokers often complain of breathing difficulty and muscle fatigue during exercise and hence avoid it at all costs. Physical activity does not improve lung function but will slow its decline by strengthening the limb muscles and respiratory system. It enables more oxygen to practice getting to the vital muscles, thus gradually improving endurance and reducing breathlessness.

Philip Carling is chairman of the Sports Council for Wales.

Source: This article© owned by or licensed to Western Mail & Echo Limited 2007
It is a trade mark of Western Mail & Echo Limited.

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Get Fit and Kick the Habit

Make the most of the national smoking ban on Monday by swapping cigarettes for exercise, says Philip Carling of the Sports Council for Wales

THE ban on smoking will revolutionize the very face of Wales’ public indoor spaces, transforming them into healthier, smoke-free zones as the last cigarettes are stubbed out in nightclubs, restaurants, and pub ash-trays from Angelsey to Monmouthshire.

Smokers can take the ban more personally by making a pledge to integrate 30 minutes physical activity five times a week into their lifestyle, even if they are not intending to stub out the habit for good. It’s all part of Health Challenge Wales.

The message that ‘smoking is bad for you’ is so old now that people have stopped giving it their full attention. Instead I would urge adults to consider that physical activity has profound benefits and can only enhance your well being, regardless of whether you smoke.

Woman on Treadmill PictureThe pub smoking ban offers a perfect opportunity for smokers to adopt a healthier more active lifestyle. If, like many smokers throughout Wales, you’re dreading its onset, now is the time to start putting the benefits of physical activity into practice. It has been proven that exercise is one of the best ways to help smokers kick the habit, and by stopping you are benefiting the health of the nation.

Research shows that smoking kills around 114,000 people in the UK each year owing to smoking related cancers, cardiovascular and lung disease, or high blood pressure leading to heart attacks and stroke. Exercise reduces the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke, lowers the chance of lung cancer, boosts circulation and helps maintain a healthy blood pressure.
Exercise is a vital tool in your successful quitting kit, and you don’t have to spend money buying it from the supermarket shelf. Aside from improving physical ability and appearance, physical activity provides fun, focus and fitness which are more likely to help you stub out the habit for good, not just for two weeks.

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Kick Your Smoking Habit in 38 Minutes and 13 Seconds

Quit Smoking Today has quite a promising guarantee.

This stop smoking program was created to help smokers stop now by Rob Mellor.

In his program Mellor reports the smoker can kick the habit in just 38 minutes and 13 seconds, in fact he guarantees it.

Mellor’s philosophy is based on the theory that the number one reason people smoke is to attempt to relieve stress.

He contends that smoking is only an illusion at stress relief and with real stress relief tools in place the smoker will no longer turn to cigarettes to relieve stresses. This illusion is deep seeded in the unconscious of the smoker and with the proper tools can be changed.
Discover the Number One Reason People Smoke

For instance, people become stressed when they are under pressure to reach a set deadline whether it is at work or in a personal situation.

A deadline approaches, the work is not completed and stress builds. So the smoker heads outside for a smoke to relieve the stress.

Mellor reminds the smoker that in doing this the work is still not completed, the deadline continues to loom, and the stress is still there.

The basis of this is that smoking doesn’t relieve stress. Learning how to reduce and effectively deal with stress is the solution that will stop smokers from picking up that deadly cancer stick.

This program guarantees it can overcome this habit.
Stop the Cravings, Don’t Rely on Willpower

In his program, Quit Smoking Today, Mellor promises that in 40 minutes you’ll gain the tools to deal appropriately with stress so you choose not to smoke. He says the smoker who tries to quit using his program will not experience cravings, or need to spend money on nicotine replacement therapies or other drugs.

He also promises his prospects that they won’t have anxiety, weight gain, suffer the sense of loss, need to use will power, or even have to set a quit date.

Mellor knows this program will work because he draws on his NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming) experience.
Change Your Thinking to Change Your Life

Neuro-Linguistic Programming is a type of psychotherapy that enables people to change their thinking to change their lives.

Thoughts that become part of our unconscious thinking from years ago still play into our decision making.

Many of these beliefs are incorrect, even dangerous for us and desperately need to be ‘reprogrammed.’ Mellor puts on the 40 minute recordings what he’s used with thousands of smokers to help them quit – for good.

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Quit Smoking Today – Tested on 5,000 Smokers

He’s tested this recording on over 5,000 smokers who wanted to quit.

You may not believe what you are about to read!

The quit results were a remarkable 99.7% stop smoking success rate for the period of one month, and 97.2% success rate in a six month period.

Along with the recording (which is backed by a 100% money back guarantee) you get five free bonuses:

1. Quit smoking eBook
2. Recorded stop smoking therapy session
3. Stress relieving audio program
4. Set of weight loss and health tips
5. 97 Ways to Get Fit and Stay Fit.

The Quit Smoking Today program (plus 5 bonuses) is sold for $47.

Money back guarantee is for 60 days!

This quit smoking program really makes sense. Learn more if you’re a smoker and want to quit you can discover new ways to cope with stress rather than replace a habit with more nicotine (patches or gum) and continue to crave a cigarette.

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Want to Quit Smoking? Discover the Easy Quit Hypnosis Program

If you’re still a smoker like 45.3 million other Americans but want to quit you may want to consider an approach that is getting good reviews, the Easy Quit Hypnosis Program.

This approach was created by Valerie Dawson a “stop smoking” expert.

Dawson’s brings to the table more than eighteen years of experience as a counselor and hypnotherapist.

Valerie Dawsom PictureShe also comes highly recommended by a number of physicians in her local area and a large number of client testimonials abound on her website offering proof of this programs success.

The website also displays the testimonials from several doctors who recommend Dawson based on the success of their own patients.
What is NLP? How Can NLP Help You Quit Smoking?

Like a number of other programs the Easy Quit Hypnosis Program utilizes NLP or neuro-linguistic programming to help the program participant quit smoking.

NLP is a counseling method that employs the use of the three most important brain functions that create experiences in a human; neurology, language, and programming.

The NLP approach to quitting smoking (or changing any other unhealthy habit) involves a fundamental change in the users perception of what the habit brings to them. In other words, perhaps a smoker perceives smoking as a stress reliever. With NLP this concept is changed so that when the ‘smoker’ feels stressed they no longer even crave a cigarette.

The basic theory is that when the smoker no longer views a cigarette as relieving the need for smoking will dissipate.
Will Easy Quit Hypnosis Really Work in 58 Minutes?

With this particular program Dawson claims as a result of her expertise and specific training in smoking cessation she will enable her clients to quit smoking in just 58 minutes!

That’s a pretty amazing claim – the question remains, is it too good to be true?

According to the numerous testimonials by both users and doctors it really does work. Not only does it work but you’ll experience no withdrawal symptoms so common with quitting smoking.
Exactly What You’ll Receive with Easy Quit Hypnosis

When you order Easy Quit Hypnosis you don’t just get a 58 minute CD to listen to and quit smoking. The program offers a wealth of materials for an affordable price.

1. A “Simple as 1-2-3 Stop Smoking Guide” with tips, tricks, step by step procedures to quit smoking and utilize hypnotism to do it.
2. Audio #1: “Getting Ready to Quit Smoking” in which Dawson explains the hypnosis program, how it works, and what you can expect.
3. Audio #2: “Stop Smoking Hypnosis Session” the actual program after which you’ll be able to say ‘I’m a non-smoker.’
4. Audio #3: “Non-smoking Hypnosis Reinforcement” the part of the program to use to keep you a non-smoker.
5. Audio #4: “Non-smoker Waking Reinforcement” to listen to at home, in the car, at work, wherever and whenever you need a little extra support.

Quit Smoking Expert ProgramCurrently on the site Dawson is also offering 4 bonuses; “Instant Natural High,” “Calm and in Control,” “Vacation to the Beach,” and “Get More Done in Less Time.”

This part of the program promises to elevate your mood and even daily level of achievement.

Maybe the program is too good to be true but maybe it works. You get all the above mentioned products for just $47 and the program is guaranteed to work or your money back. You also get to keep the bonus CDs.
Making a Personal Choice

The decision to smoke as well as the one to quit are very personal choices. It goes without saying that the program that works for one smoker may or may not work for another smoker. The price of this program is low and the success rate according to site testimonials is high. If you’re serious about quitting smoking it just may be worth the try.

If you choose to try the program please report back to us and leave your comments on how well it worked for you.

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Linux

 Linux is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, Linus Torvalds, at the University of Helsinki in Finland. Linus had an interest in Minix, a small UNIX system, and decided to develop a system that exceeded the Minix standards. He began his work in 1991 when he released version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernel was released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and released under the GNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone. It is this kernel that forms the base around which a Linux operating system is developed. There are now literally hundreds of companies and organizations and an equal number of individuals that have released their own versions of operating systems based on the Linux kernel. More information on the kernel can be found at our sister site, LinuxHQ and at the official Linux Kernel Archives. The current full-featured version is 2.6 (released December 2003) and development continues.
Apart from the fact that it's freely distributed, Linux's functionality, adaptability and robustness, has made it the main alternative for proprietary Unix and Microsoft operating systems. IBM, Hewlett-Packard and other giants of the computing world have embraced Linux and support its ongoing development. Well into its second decade of existence, Linux has been adopted worldwide primarily as a server platform. Its use as a home and office desktop operating system is also on the rise. The operating system can also be incorporated directly into microchips in a process called "embedding" and is increasingly being used this way in appliances and devices.
Throughout most of the 1990's, tech pundits, largely unaware of Linux's potential, dismissed it as a computer hobbyist project, unsuitable for the general public's computing needs. Through the efforts of developers of desktop management systems such as KDE and GNOME, office suite project OpenOffice.org and the Mozilla web browser project, to name only a few, there are now a wide range of applications that run on Linux and it can be used by anyone regardless of his/her knowledge of computers. Those curious to see the capabilities of Linux can download a live CD version called Knoppix . It comes with everything you might need to carry out day-to-day tasks on the computer and it needs no installation. It will run from a CD in a computer capable of booting from the CD drive. Those choosing to continue using Linux can find a variety of versions or "distributions" of Linux that are easy to install, configure and use. Information on these products is available in our distribution section and can be found by selecting the mainstream/general public category.
Additional Information
If you're interested in learning about Linux, need help with some aspect of its use or are enthusiastic about it and want to help foster its adoption, you may want to get in touch with a Linux User Group in your area. There are groups in practically every country, region and city in the world, so there is likely to be one near you.
Each day, Linux use is increasing in every sector of our society. We have information about Linux deployments in government, industry and the arts.
Linux has an official mascot, Tux, the Linux penguin, which was selected by Linus Torvalds to represent the image he associates with the operating system. Tux was created by Larry Ewing and Larry has generously given it to the community to be freely used to promote Linux. More information on use of the image can be found on his webpage. More links to variations on the image and alternative logos can be found on our logo page
Many people are not sure of the pronunciation of the word Linux. Although many variations of the word exist, often due to native language factors, it is normally pronounced with a short " i " and with the first syllable stressed, as in LIH-nucks. You can hear how Linux creator Linus Torvalds pronounces the word in Swedish and in English .
www.linux.org

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Word Processor

A word processor (more formally known as document preparation system) is a computer application used for the production (including composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of printable material.
Word processor may also refer to an obsolete type of stand-alone office machine, popular in the 1970s and 80s, combining the keyboard text-entry and printing functions of an electric typewriter with a dedicated computer for the editing of text. Although features and design varied between manufacturers and models, with new features added as technology advanced, word processors for several years usually featured a monochrome display and the ability to save documents on memory cards or diskettes. Later models introduced innovations such as spell-checking programs, increased formatting options, and dot-matrix printing. As the more versatile combination of a personal computer and separate printer became commonplace, the word processor disappeared.
Word processors are descended from early text formatting tools (sometimes called text justification tools, from their only real capability). Word processing was one of the earliest applications for the personal computer in office productivity.
Although early word processors used tag-based markup for document formatting, most modern word processors take advantage of a graphical user interface. Most are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce any arbitrary combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type-setting capability.
Microsoft Word is the most widely used computer word processing system; Microsoft estimates over five hundred million people use the Office suite, which includes Word. There are also many other commercial word processing applications, such as WordPerfect, which dominated the market from the mid-1980s to early-1990s, particularly for machines running Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. Open-source applications such as OpenOffice.org Writer and KWord are rapidly gaining in popularity. Online word processors such as Google Docs are a relatively new category.

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Operating System

An operating system (commonly abbreviated OS and O/S) is the software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for application programs that are run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. Almost all computers, including hand-held computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, and even modern video game consoles, use an operating system of some type. Some of the oldest models may however use an embedded OS, that may be contained on a compact disk or other storage device.

Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications access these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the operating system by typing commands or using a graphical user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the GUI is generally considered part of the operating system. For large multi-user systems, the GUI is generally implemented as an application program that runs outside the operating system.

Common contemporary operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux and Solaris. Microsoft Windows has a significant majority of market share in the desktop and notebook computer markets, while servers generally run on Linux or other Unix-like systems. Embedded device markets are split amongst several operating systems.

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Motherboard

The Motherboard is indeed the largest circuit card inyour computer.All components are attached to yourmotherboard either directly or indirectly.

In 1982,IBM or International Business Machines made theoriginal PC motherboard which used the 8088 CPU orCentral Processing Unit.This simple board also had a BIOS,memory sockets and adapter slots.

The Motherboard have several formats with the Baby ATbeing the classic format for 486 and Pentium computers.The ATX format comes with the Socket 7 and Slot 1 mainboard while the new NLX motherboard is considered lowcost with PCI and ISA slots mounted on raisers.
The Motherboard's form factor is its physical size andshape.The form facter measurement for motherboardsare from the outside dimensions.We will look at the Pentium Motherboard in and out of the case.

Let's take the time to look at the components of the motherboard and how they relate to each other.We willlook at the Titan 3 Gigabyte Pentium 4 Motherboard andits components.
COMPONENTS ON THE MOTHERBOARD

CPU Chip is the brains of any computer.This Pentium 42.5 gigabyte chips has a very large cooling fan whichcirculates air around the chip.

RAM Memory is where information is stored for very quick access by the computer.DIMM memory was the popularmemory chip until the more recent RIMM Chips came onthe scene.

BIOS Chip is that chip responsible for holding the datathe computer needs to start and to check all devices inthe system.This data is not lost when the computer isturned off.The cmos battery keeps the data intact.

CMOS Battery provides power to the BIOS Chip so thatthe computer can access the data on the chip.This dataallows the computer to boot up.

ISA Slots stands for Industry Standard Architecture andthis is the older and slower data bus used on 486 PCs.

PCI Slots replaced the slower ISA Slots.The PCI data bus gives the computer much faster data transfer fromthe device to the motherboard.

AGP Slot is used by the video card to provide quickand fast access by the cpu.Video data is send directlyto the cpu without any delay whatsoever.AGP stands forAccelerated Graphics Port: an Intel-designed 32-bit PC bus architecture introduced in 1997 allowing graphics cards direct access to the system bus.

USB Ports or Universal Serial Bus ports are Intel's newerstandard connection for attaching such peripherals asdigital cameras.

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Joel's Reinforcement Library | Quitting by Gradual Withdrawal

Quitting by the gradual withdrawal method. I discuss this method quite extensively in my seminars. I always tell how if there is anyone attending who knows a smoker who they really despise they should actively encourage them to follow the gradual withdrawal "cut down" approach. They should call them up every day and tell them to just get rid of one cigarette. Meaning, if they usually smoke 40 a day, just smoke 39 on the first day of the attempt to quit. The next day they should be encouraged to smoke only 38 then 37 the next day and so on. Then the seminar participant should call these people every day to congratulate them and encourage them to continue. I must reemphasize, this should only be done to a smoker you really despise.

You see, most smokers will agree to this approach. It sounds so easy to just smoke one less each day. Thirty-nine cigarettes to a two pack a day smoker seems like nothing. The trick is to convince the person that you are only trying to help them. For the first week or two the one downside is you have to pretend to like the person and you have to talk to them every day. They won’t whine too bad either. When they are down to 30 from 40, they may start to complain a little. You really won’t be having fun yet. When the payoff comes is about three weeks into the scam. Now you've got them to less than half their normal amount. They are in moderate withdrawal all the time.

A month into the approach you’ve got them into pretty major withdrawal. But be persistent. Call them and tell them how great they are doing and how proud you are of them. When they are in their 35th to 39th day, you have pulled off a major coup. This poor person is in peak withdrawal, suffering miserably and having absolutely nothing to show for it. They are no closer to ending withdrawal than the day you started the process. They are in chronic withdrawal, not treating him or herself to one or two a day, but actually depriving him or herself of 35 to 40 per day.

If you want to go in for the kill, when you have them down to zero, tell them don’t worry if things get tough, just take a puff every once in a while. If you can get them to fall for this, taking one puff every third day, they will remain in withdrawal forever. Did I mention you really should despise this person to do this to them? It is probably the cruelest practical joke that you could ever pull on anyone. You will undercut their chance to quit, make them suffer immeasurably and likely they will at some point throw in the towel, return to smoking, have such fear of quitting because of what they went through cutting down, that they will continue to smoke until it kills them. Like I said, you better really despise this person.

Hopefully there is no one you despise that much to do this to them. I hope nobody despises themselves enough to do this to themselves. Quitting cold turkey may be hard but quitting by this withdrawal technique is virtually impossible. If you have a choice between hard and impossible, go for hard. You will have something to show at the end of a hard process, but nothing but misery at the end of an impossible approach. Quit cold and in 72 hours it eases up. Cut down and it will basically get progressively worse for weeks, months, or years if you let it.

I should mention, this is not a new technique. It has been around for decades. Talk to every long-term ex-smoker you know. Try to find one person who successfully used the cut down approach, gradually reducing to eventual zero over weeks or months. You will be hard pressed to find even one person who fits this bill. One other perspective that should help you see the flaw in the approach. Look at people here who had once quit for months or years and then relapsed. One day, after such a long time period, they take a drag and are smoking again. If one puff can do this after years or decades, guess what it will do after days or hours of being smoke free. It puts the smoker back to square one. All that any ex-smoker has to do to avoid relapse or chronic withdrawal is to - NEVER TAKE ANOTHER PUFF!

Joel

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Mediterranean Diet Linked to Less Weight-Gain

People who follow a Mediterranean diet may avoid putting on extra weight as they age, suggests a new study.
The Mediterranean diet includes fruits, vegetables, nuts, olive oil, grains, and moderate amounts of fish and wine, but very little saturated fats, like eggs, red meat, dairy products, and poultry.

Consuming a Mediterranean diet has been shown to reduce the risk of cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.

Writing in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, researchers asked 10,000 university graduates in Spain, men and women, average age of 38 years old, to fill out a food questionnaire. The participants were then tracked for six years.

Average weight gain among participants during the study was a half pound, but the participants most closely following a Mediterranean diet gained less weight, compared to individuals deviating from the diet.

Participants who stuck with the Mediterranean diet were 10% less likely to become overweight or obese and were 24% less likely to gain more than 11 pounds over the first four years of the study.

Traditionally, the Mediterranean diet is eaten in coastal nations like Italy, Crete, and Greece, but the spread of fast food and Western lifestyles has compromised the health and diet of many Mediterranean countries.

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Soy May Cut Breast Cancer Risk

Young women who eat soy products may lower their chances of developing invasive breast cancer, says a new study presented at a meeting of the American Association of Cancer Research in Philadelphia.

Soy foods like tofu contain isoflavones and polyphenols, linked to reduced risk of diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, and may help lower cholesterol.

The study included 683 women with breast cancer and 611 women without the disease, finding that women who ate the most isoflavones were 30% less likely to develop invasive breast cancer.


Further analysis revealed premenopausal women consuming a lot of soy isoflavones had a 30% lower risk of stage 1 breast cancer, 70% reduced risk of having a tumor larger than 2 centimeters, and a 60% decreased risk of stage 2 breast cancer.

The researchers say eating isoflavones seems to be associated with more treatable and less severe forms of breast cancer. However, the link between soy isoflavones and breast cancer was not observed among postmenopausal women.

All over the world soy is eaten in many forms, such as soy oil, meal, flour, baby formula, tofu, and soy milk. Soy is also used as a meat and dairy substitute.

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Women Who Eat Chocolate Have Healthier Hearts

Women 70 years of age and older are less likely to develop heart problems if they regularly eat chocolate, a new study claims.

Cocoa, which is used to make chocolate, is native to Mexico and Central and South America, and has been cultivated for thousands of years. Natives used cocoa as a beverage and an ingredient in foods.

Writing in the Archives of Internal Medicine, researchers found women older than 70 who consumed chocolate at least once per week were 35% less likely to be hospitalized or die from heart disease.

Also, older women eating chocolate were 60% less likely to be hospitalized or die from heart failure. Antioxidants and flavonoids contained in chocolate are thought to reduce heart disease by improving blood vessel health.

For the study, the scientists analyzed data on more than 1,200 older women who ate chocolate for nearly 10 years. Women eating chocolate only rarely were more likely to be hospitalized or die from heart disease, compared to chocolate eaters.

But the researchers are reluctant to urge women to consume more chocolate, given the extra calories.

Other health claims about chocolate include improving brain health, preventing cancer, and antidiarrhoeal effects, but these are largely unproven.

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Red Meat Raises Stomach, Esophageal Cancer Risk

People eating a lot of red meat may have a higher risk of developing throat and stomach cancer, suggests a new study.

Reporting in the American Journal of Gastroenterology, researchers followed 500,000 older adults in the United States for 10 years, finding those individuals who consumed a lot of red meat had a greater risk of stomach or esophageal cancer.

The National Cancer Institute predicts 21,000 new cases of stomach cancer in the U.S. in 2010, with 10,570 deaths due to the disease. And new diagnoses of esophageal cancer in 2010 will hit 16,640, with 14,500 deaths.

Study participants in the top 20% of red meat consumption were 79% more likely to develop throat cancer, compared to people in the bottom 20% of red meat consumption.

Higher risk of stomach cancer was also observed in the top meat eaters, especially individuals consuming meat cooked at high temperatures; which creates heterocyclic amines (HCA), carcinogenic compounds shown to cause cancer in lab animals.

Unlike red meat, foods like fruits and vegetables, which are high in antioxidants, decrease cancer risk.

According to the World Health Organization, cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide. In 2004, 7.4 million deaths were attributed to cancer. And by 2030, cancer related deaths are expected to reach 12 million.

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Fish Oil Pills Won’t Stop Alzheimer’s Disease

Researchers investigating the effects of fish oil supplements found no cognitive differences between individuals taking fish oil and those who did not, specifically as it relates to Alzheimer’s disease.

Alzheimer’s is a terminal brain disease causing dementia and ultimately death. The World Health Organization estimates there are currently 18 million people worldwide with Alzheimer’s disease.

Fish oil supplements, derived from the body tissue of oily fish like mackerel, sardines, and salmon, contain important omega-3 fatty acids; linked to reduced risk of cancer, heart disease, depression, and mental illness, such as Alzheimer’s disease.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), present in fish oil, is a brain-building fatty acid.

But a new study challenges fish oil’s potency against Alzheimer’s. Writing in the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers found taking fish oil supplements did not slow the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. The scientists say taking fish oil is “not going to help” a patient already diagnosed with Alzheimer’s.

The study involved 400 men and women, average age 76, with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease. Participants were randomized to receive 2 grams daily of DHA or a placebo. Results showed despite raised blood levels of DHA, there were no differences in cognitive function between the DHA group and the placebo group.
Other food sources of omega-3 fatty acids include flaxseed oil, eggs, krill, and meat, milk, and cheese from grass-fed cows.

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Diabetes Linked to Colon Cancer in Men

Researchers have confirmed the link between type-2 diabetes and an increased risk of colorectal cancer.

The World Health Organization (WHO) fingers cancer as the leading cause of death worldwide. Cancer accounted for 7.4 million deaths in 2004; 639,000 were due to colon cancer.

As for diabetes, WHO statistics show 5% of deaths worldwide can be attributed to diabetes, and that number is expected to double within the next 10 years.

The new study, published in the journal Gastroenterology, involved 184,000 older U.S. adults followed up on for 15 years. Results showed men with diabetes had a higher risk of developing colon cancer. No higher risk was found in women.

Men with diabetes were 24% more likely to develop colon cancer than diabetes-free men and men using insulin to treat diabetes had a 36% higher risk of colorectal cancer than men without diabetes.

Researchers speculate that diabetes might contribute to cancer by chronically elevating blood levels of insulin. Insulin can increase the growth factors of cancer cells, such as escalating cancer’s ability to spread throughout the body.

Also, the scientists suggest that the reason diabetes may not be tied to colon cancer in women, is that women may be better at monitoring their blood sugar than men.

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Walking Helps Save Memory

Humans are designed to walk; being bipedal allows us to traverse long distances quickly and efficiently. Analysis of ancient foot prints discovered in Kenya show our ancestors walked very similar to modern day humans.

Health benefits of walking include reduced risk of cancer, type-2 diabetes, heart disease, depression, and anxiety.

And a new study claims walking helps protect the brain and prevent cognitive decline and dementia as we age.

Writing in the journal Neurology, researchers found more physically active individuals had a lower risk of developing cognitive impairment, i.e. memory loss.

For the study, scientists tracked 300 adults, taking note of their cognitive abilities and physical activity, specifically how many blocks each person walked in a week. All participants were in good cognitive health at the beginning of the research.

After nine years, study participants were given an MRI to measure brain size. At that point, all were “cognitively normal.” But four years later, testing showed more than one-third of the people had developed mild cognitive impairment or dementia.

So considering the findings, the researchers are stressing the importance of staying active to preserve brain function, especially in our later years.

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Mediterranean Diet Helps Cut Diabetes Risk

A traditional Mediterranean diet, rich in plant foods and olive oil, may help older adults lower their risk of type-2 diabetes.

Mediterranean diets include heavy consumption of fruits, vegetables, nuts, olive oil, grains, and moderate amounts of fish and wine, but low consumption of saturated fats, like eggs, red meat, dairy products, and poultry.

Strict Mediterranean diets have been shown to reduce the rates of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes.


In a new study, published in the journal Diabetes Care, found eating a Mediterranean diet helped lower type-2 diabetes risk, even without counting calories or losing weight.

Researchers followed 418 older Spanish adults, finding study participants who were instructed to eat a Mediterranean diet were less likely to develop diabetes after four years than the individuals put on a low-fat diet.

Among the study participants, 18% of the low-fat group developed diabetes, compared to only 10% of the Mediterranean diet group.

Many of the sixteen countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, like Italy, Greece, and Crete, consume variations of the Mediterranean diet, which was historically paired with high levels of physical activity, specifically working long days on the farm.

But Mediterranean nations face new obstacles as Western diets spread throughout the world, ushering in fast food and insufficient exercise; both risk factors for type-2 diabetes, plus other maladies like heart disease and cancer.

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Obese People Don’t See Themselves as Fat

Despite rampant fat-phobia, many obese people do not see themselves as fat and unhealthy; according to findings in the Archives of Internal Medicine.

For the study, scientists assessed the body awareness of more than 2,000 men and women already participating in a heart study, using a survey to determine how they perceive their bodies.

The researchers asked participants to look at pictures and choose their ideal body size. People who picked figures that were the same or larger than their actual body size were classified as “misperceiving” their body size; not seeing themselves as less healthy, at higher risk of disease, or needing to lose weight.

But the “misperceiving” individuals were also more likely to be happier, unlike the study participants who acknowledge they are fat and out of shape who tend to be less happy.

Important factors were considered. Scientists found people with higher incomes and better education were no more likely to perceive their body weight accurately, than less educated people, or those with lower incomes.
The overarching problem with these findings is misperceiving body size/weight does not lessen the health risks; being overweight or obese raises your risk of heart disease, type-2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and more.

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Girls with Heavy College Roommates Gain Less Weight

College is the home of the dreaded “freshman fifteen;” the weight many students gain during their first year of school. Most kids try to avoid the freshman fifteen, but all that beer and pizza will creep up on you.

But if you’re a girl, a new study says you’re less likely to gain weight during your freshman year if your roommate is heavy.

Presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Health Economists, scientists discovered college girls with roommates who have above average weight, gain less weight during their freshman year, than female students with slimmer roommates. The difference was a half a pound versus 2.5 pounds.

Researchers say heavier roommates are more likely to diet, exercise, and limit access to food, and these behaviors can be “contagious.”
Most of the time people pick friends and acquaintances that are similar to themselves. So the scientists speculate with randomly assigned roommates, you might be paired with a person you wouldn’t normally make friends with, like an overweight person. And this person’s unique habits may rub off on you.

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Smoking Doubles Dementia, Alzheimer’s Risk

Smoking more than two packs of cigarettes a day during middle-age can double your risk of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia 20 years later, a new study reveals.

Tobacco smoking causes millions of deaths each year, mostly to lung cancer and cardiovascular disease, but also other maladies like emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), even diabetes.

For the new study, published in the Archives of Internal Medicine, researchers reviewed data on 21,123 members of a health plan who took part in a survey in their 50s and 60s.

Among the participants, 25%, 5,367 people, had been diagnosed with dementia during a 20 year follow-up, and of that 25%, 1,136 study participants were diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Smokers fared the worst.

Compared to nonsmokers, individuals who smoked more than two packs a day had a 114% increased risk of dementia and a 157% higher risk of Alzheimer’s disease. The researchers say it is hard to determine why smoking increases the risk of brain disorders because people often die before thorough analysis can be conducted.

Smoking has been humanity’s favorite bad habit for thousands of years, dating back as early as 5000 to 3000 BC where tobacco smoking was used as a part of religious ceremonies and rituals. But nowadays smoking is becoming less and less accepted, with states like New York and California banning smoking in bars.

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Green Vegetables May Help Cut Breast Cancer Risk

Cruciferous, or “leafy green,” vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and collard greens, may help prevent an aggressive form of breast cancer, suggests a new study.

Leafy greens are considered among the healthiest foods in the world; high in vitamin C, fiber, and anti-cancer compounds like sulforaphane and selenium.

Writing in the American Journal of Epidemiology, researchers tracked the diets and health of over 50,000 African American women across the United States for 12 years. And during that period 1,300 women were diagnosed with breast cancer.

Among the 1,300 new cases of breast cancer, 35% of women developed ER-negative breast cancer. But women eating at least two servings of vegetables per day had a 43% lower risk of ER-negative breast cancer, compared to women who ate fewer vegetables each week. Vegetables like broccoli, collard greens, cabbage, and carrots, were identified as lowering the risk of all cancers.

Results did not indicate a similar anti-cancer effect with fruit.

The researchers insist it is too early to label the relationship between breast cancer and vegetables as “cause and effect,” but suggest eating more vegetables could contribute to an overall healthier lifestyle.

Other cruciferous vegetables include kale, kohlrabi, cauliflower, turnip greens, broccoli rabe, arugula, watercress, radish, and daikon.

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Walking Helps Lower Breast Cancer Risk

Researchers claim women who take regular brisk walks have a lower risk of developing breast cancer after menopause.

Walking as exercise has been shown to reduce the risk of heart disease, cancer, type-2 diabetes, high blood pressure, anxiety, depression, and obesity.

Writing in the Archives of Internal Medicine, researchers collected data on 100,000 postmenopausal women, finding that women who did one hour of brisk walking each day were 15% less likely to develop breast cancer, compared to women who walked less than one our per week.

But reduced risk of breast cancer was not only seen among walkers. Women who got little exercise, but still increased their physical activity were 10% less likely to develop cancer than women who stayed inactive.

However, the researchers admit the study does not say walking caused less breast cancer, but the findings do highlight the importance of exercising for cancer prevention, especially after menopause.

In addition to exercise, diet is also an effective means of preventing cancer, specifically eating more fruits and vegetables, and less saturated fat. Antioxidants found in plants are known cancer-fighters.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer for women worldwide, killing an estimated 519,000 women in 2004, according to the World Health Organization.

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My Head Says Who cates, but my heart says You do, idiot :(

We haven't spoken in 2 months - maybe the longest we have gone since we first met each other 5 years ago. I always want to call you, to email you, to message you, but I often restrain myself. You are better off - in your new life on the other side of the world - and I am better off in mine. We don't need each other anymore. We weren't good friends to each other, we weren't good lovers to each other. We are better off apart.

Or, at least, that's what I keep telling myself. And, to be honest, I am sick of it. I am in love with you. Head over heels in love. You are the last thing I think about when I go to bed at night and the first thing I think about when I wake up in the morning. And while I'm sleeping? You're there too - in my dreams. I am petrified of telling you because I know there is no way that we can ever be together. You're gone - stuck in Europe - for the next two years.

I shouldn't love you. I should hate you. After all that you have done to me. Lied to me. Cheated on me. Betrayed me. You were never Prince Charming. Never honest. You were the typical asshole. But, the first time you were honest with you, the time you told me that you had slept with someone else, was the time I realized I was in love with you. That was almost two years ago. I am sick and tired of keeping this secret. I am scared to tell this secret.

So, B, I write you this anonymous letter in hopes that I don't have to tell you that I love you, but in hopes that you will feel it. I hope that one day - despite all that we have been through - that I become as honest with you as you were with me.

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Money Can Buy True Love?

In human daily life, there are many kinds of persons living in a society. Those of people always have different kinds or styles of living standard like rich, poor, medium..

For rich people, they must have lots of money. With money, the rich can buy foods, clothes, furniture, goods, ...etc as they want to buy. But is it possible for rich people use their money to buy True Love?

Another question: Money is everything? If you have money, do you have everything? For me, I think money may buy a person, but money may not buy a person's heart or mind. Money can give you properties, but it's not sure that money can give you happiness. So money is not everything.

How about true love?

What is the True Love? A man and woman love each other so much ,they love each other by heart to heart. They love each other in an honest, peaceful way until they want to get married and live with each other for life until they die and when they die, they really want to die together, that's I think it's a true love between a man and a woman.

Money can buy true love?

A rich man love a girl, but she does not love the rich man. The man uses many many means to attract her. The last mean that the rich man think it's may be OK is using his money to buy the girl's love. The man does not hesitate to give her all his money. But the girl still not love the rich. So, money can not buy her love, the true love of her!..

Money can buy true love?

A story talking about a couple with a poor living standard, but their heart is not poor to love each other to have a true love in their family life. The couple has been married for 3 years. They love each other so much, so they are living in a happiness way. They have a house in a countryside village. One day, a millionaire came to visit the village and saw the couple. The millionaire fell in love with the wife of the poor husband and wanted her to live with him. The millionaire tried to give much much money to the wife to convince her. But the wife said: "I do not get your money or I strongly disagree with you. I already have my husband!". The millionaire said: "If you don't go with me, I will kill your husband!". The wife went to hug her husband and the couple said: "We are not be able to separate. We're happy to die together!". The millionaire saw like that, he pity the couple and said that: "My position, my money can not by the true love!!!"

So, in conclusion, Money is not everything. Money is really can not buy True Love!!!

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